The Impact of Assistive Technologies as Learning and Teaching Essay Example for Free

The Impact of Assistive Technologies as Learning and Teaching Essay Traditional classrooms in which the teacher delivered content by standing before a class of students, patiently waiting to be filled, much like empty vessels, have long been noted for their inherent shortfalls in meeting the cognitive and developmental needs of each of the range of students in their care. Research has proven that such methods do not work effectively to the benefit of all learners in a classroom because each learner has specific cognitive needs that may not be met in such a situation. Theorists as recent as Howard Gardner with his multiple intelligence theory in 1989 have emphasized the point that no two children learn in the same. The implication of this is that the teacher has to incorporate a variety of teaching strategies, tools, aids and other facilities in the classroom in order to provide the students with the best possible learning environment. Moreover the challenges that students with disabilities face are in themselves several, thus it is an added strain for them to attempt to cope with traditional teaching and learning methodology. For each child in the general education system, but even more so for these special learners, instructional modes have to be adjusted to cater for the specific needs of each learner if the overall curriculum goals are to be achieved. The use of Assistive Technologies (AT) in the classroom contributes to improvements in the performance and motivation of students across subject areas. Assistive Technology refers to the range of equipment and products that a teacher can introduce to the teaching learning situation as a means of improving the capabilities of students with disabilities. Such technologies are numerous. Non electronic equipment such as picture and alphabet boards, as well as light pointers, can be introduced to the special needs classroom (Beck, 2002). Technological advancements have facilitated the development of a number of software packages that can be used to supplement the resources that the teacher already uses in the classroom. Speech synthesis and voice recognition software and other subject specific software that have been created for use in the classroom are useful tools that have the potential, when used appropriately and effectively to enhance the classroom environment. In this paper reference will be made to several specific researches that have examined the usefulness of Assistive Technologies in the general education classroom. Since most of the research was necessarily specific to students with special needs, they bear considerable relevance to meeting the needs of these specific students. The findings could, however, be easily used in a multicultural classroom where learners are of varying physical and cognitive abilities even if their disabilities are not extensive. Armed with the knowledge of these assistive technologies teachers have the potential to transform their classrooms into an environment that caters for the specific needs of all students, whether those needs come in the form of physical disabilities, cognitive, social, psychological or other peculiar needs. In this paper a number of researches conducted on the impact of the use of assistive technology in the classroom would be presented. The research discussed initially will highlight how in one classroom a teacher created material with the aid of several assistive technology tools and demonstrate the endless possibilities for their usage in the classroom. A further research will be more specific to the advantages of using individual personal computers in the classroom. Further research will demonstrate how this tool and other assistive technology, used along with other medium can improve learners’ literacy (reading, writing and speaking) and numeracy (geometry) skills. Additional research into the tools introduced into the classroom for two other specific subject areas (social studies and environmental science) will be discussed. The result of examining these researches will show that the use of assistive technology in the classroom does in fact contribute significantly to improvements in learners’ performance and motivation. The research that Beck (2002) discusses follows the progress of three-year-old students in the Preschool Education Program. The ten students observed in this case study demonstrated various physical and cognitive shortcomings. Multiple assistive technologies were used to help develop the literacy skills of these students and allowed them to participate in different learning activities eventually leading to improved performance (Beck, 2002). Beck (2002) argues that students with disabilities have more difficulty meeting their goals in literacy skills than other students in the general education system. To facilitate easier interaction in the classroom specific assistive technology tools were created and employed by the classroom teacher. One of the first daily classroom activities is modified using a piece of software a picture communication schedule. This shows the students a picture and written text of its meaning. This approach facilitated student’s reading as they were able to associate the words with the object depicted. The second type of assistive technology was implemented at the language learning center.   Class books for reading were modified and recreated into story boards. These story boards were placed in the classroom. Students could independently follow the book by examining the pictures created to match specific words. The creation of the picture boards was facilitated through the computer software Overlay Maker (Beck 2002). The BIGmack technology was also used. This allowed students to participate in group reading activities by replaying preprogrammed phrases from the book being read, while the rest of the class read aloud (Beck, 2002). Additionally through the use of Intellipics the teacher recreated stories from the class book by using pictures that include sound and animation when selected. Students were permitted five-minute rotations at a computer to practice recognition and reading independently as facilitated by the Intellipics program. Beck (2002) gives a broad assessment of students’ attitude and performance prior to using these technologies. She notes that before, students were not engaged effectively in the reading corner as they just browsed through books, making little attempt to read the pages. She observed that improved interest in reading is the most significant and pleasing result of the introduction of the assistive technologies. The success of the introduction of these equipments in the classroom, though not overly extensive is, nevertheless, informative. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the use of assistive technology in this classroom was done primarily in the form of observations, checklists and informal teacher observations. Following a rubric, students were rated on their ability to activate the switch on the BIGMack when appropriate, their ability to name and identify a picture symbol or point to a picture after hearing its corresponding word. The results showed that approximately 90% of the students activated the BIGMack switch and 80% were able to satisfactorily match picture to word. A similar 80% of students were able to correctly name the picture symbols (Beck, 2002). This clearly shows a significant improvement in student performance when the assistive technology was used. Though these observations were not very scientific they still give a good impression. Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) has become an important element in today’s classroom environment. This type of instruction is becoming a significant assistive technology tool when enhancing student learning in various subject areas. It must here be noted that most schools in the United States have a form of CAI in the classroom. The article presented by Boling Martin (2002), sought to determine the effects of CAI on the development of vocabulary on 21 first grade students from a mid-Atlantic elementary school. Ten boys and eleven girls were involved in this six week study. These students were determined to be of a low socio-economic status and had limited exposure to educational experiences outside the school. They were also of mixed ethnicity, thirteen (13) Caucasians, six (6) African-Americans, one (1) Hispanic and (1) Pakistani. The study randomly assigned students to one of two groups. One group the control group, had 10 students and the experimental group had 11 students. All students continued to receive regular reading vocabulary instruction by their teachers. During their assigned 20 minute drop everything and read (DEAR) program both groups read a total seven pre-selected stories. In the control group the story was first read to the students by the teacher, next they listened to it on tape while following in the story book, and finally they were permitted to read any preferred printed literature after the first two tasks were completed. The experimental group used a computerized story board to explore the story first with each student having access to a computer, mouse, keyboard and headphones. Students would read and follow a story independently and where unfamiliar words were met, a click on the word would give its pronunciation. The program used in this study was the WiggleWorks software that offered literacy curriculum based on a combination of speech, sounds, graphics, text and other features.   Students were also able to create word banks by clicking on a plus sign and later develop their own stories or sentences using those words (Boling Martin, 2002). Determining the success of one method over the other was dependent on the students’ performance on vocabulary tests administered before and after the commencement of the study, regardless of the assistive technology used. The results were examined using both pairs of tests. The results showed significant positive effect for both groups but students using the assistive technology software showed greater improvement in their ability to remember more vocabulary words. According to Boling Martin (2002), the experimental group gained significantly as reflected in the difference between the mean scores for the pre test 3.7 and the post test 16.9. Overall the experimental group benefited to a larger extent than the control group. The use of the computer in the learning corners in the Preschool Education program and the Computer Assisted-Instruction testify to the immutable usefulness of this piece of equipment – the computer in the classroom. Acknowledging this fact several laptop immersion programs have been initiated in a number of states across the U.S. including Maine, California, and South Carolina. The Microsoft Corporation caught on to this program in 1996. Report from these immersion programs has suggested that the incorporation of laptops in the general education system not only led to improvements in students’ motivation but have also shown increase in students’ participation and in the rate at which they complete scheduled tasks (Bulek Demirtas, 2005). While educators have been arguing about the utility of laptops in the classroom, some people have questioned the degree to which these have contributed to improvements in student performance. A study was conducted at the Harvest Park Middle School to ascertain what specific impact the use of laptops have on students overall learning, specifically on their individual class grades, grade point average, writing skills and scores on standardized and other external exams (Bulek Demirtas, 2005). This school participates in the laptop immersion program which involves parents and students first applying and then each parent is required to purchase the laptop for his/her child.   In cases where there is economic disadvantage there is the option of a one year loan of a laptop subject to application and approval. Training in the use of the computer is provided. Subsequent to that the students use their laptops independently across their specific subject areas to perform any variety of curricula-related tasks such as researching, preparing presentations, typing essays and note-taking. The school, located in Pleasanton, California has approximately 24% of its population enrolled in the program. Their grade levels range from sixth through to eighth. A representation of Asians, Filipinos, Whites and Hispanics are enrolled in the program (Bulek Demirtas, 2005). The data collected from test results of students enrolled in the laptop immersion program as compared to those not involved, shows something pretty impressive. Five categories of grades were collected for students in the program over a three year period and these were pitted against the grades obtained by students not involved in the program. Their end-of-course grades were collected for each subject and from this their G.P.A. was calculated averaging their grades for all courses taken by each student. Grades were also gathered from the district writing assessment for the sixth and eighth graders and from the California Standards Tests. For sixth and eighth graders this test is strictly multiple choice while for the seventh graders a writing test is included. The last set of grades came from a Norm-Referenced Test in which all three grade levels were tested in spelling, language, reading, and mathematics. The data reveals significant difference in the scores received for all these assessments between students involved in the program and those who were not. In the initial year not much distinction existed between grades but subsequently the laptop users began to showed marked distinction in their grades. The grades obtained by both groups for English Language Arts and Mathematics showed laptop users had higher GPA scores than non-laptop users.   Sixth grade students had a better significant score by 37 points, seventh grade students by 36 points, and eighth grade students by 16 points. The end-of-year grades for these same subject areas showed more A scores and fewer F scores than non-laptop users (Bulek Demirtas, 2005). There was a very considerable difference at the seventh grade level where students in the immersion program had 16% more A’s than non-laptop users (Bulek Demirtas, 2005).   In the eighth grade, however, there is a slight shift in statistics, non-laptop users actually received 3% more A’s than laptop users.   Overall, 90% of students in the laptop immersion program received a letter B grade or performed better in English compared to 79% among the non-laptop users (Bulek Demirtas, 2005). In the district writing assessment for sixth and eighth graders, a higher percentage of laptop-using students met or surpassed their grade level expectations by 16% in grade six and 8% in the eighth grade (Bulek Demirtas, 2005).   The study showed that students in the laptop program scored more Solid Consistency Scores, 3, than the others. In the state mandated exam, students in the laptop program scored at or above the national average in the mathematics and language arts part of the exam for all grade levels (Bulek Dermitas, 2005).   There was considerable difference also in the mathematics sixth grade category where it showed students in the immersion program had a higher percentage by 13 points. The California assessment exam also showed a significantly higher result in the scores of the laptop users compared to the non-laptop users in all grade levels.   Bulek Demirtas (2005) reveal that the laptop users scored higher by a difference of 17% in language arts and 18% in mathematics. The results obtained from the study of the Harvest Park Middle school prove that the laptop immersion program had a positive impact on student achievement (Bulek Dermitas, 2005). The potential uses of the laptop in coordination with other software and technological tools therefore present boundless opportunities for the classroom teacher to modify technique and vary delivery strategy so as to ensure improved student performance. In a study exploring the use of a word processor for teaching the academic outcomes of students with special needs that had been tested as having writing disabilities, Hetzroni and Shrieber (2004), further add merit to the argument for the use of assistive technology in the classroom. In a case study involving three 7th grade students with writing disabilities, the computer word-processing program, when used correctly, was proven to be effective in increasing their writing scores. In this study the researchers functioned under the premise that the slow completion of classroom tasks caused by weaknesses in writing skill could be compensated with the use of assistive technology tools. Three male students, aged 12 to 13 were selected for the study based on their noted learning disabilities and even though they all showed reading scores appropriate to their required age level, it was believed that poor writing skills significantly accounted for their consistent underachievement. They were also required to demonstrate basic keyboarding competence. The study aimed to compare the percentage of spelling and reading errors present in the students work at the end of each language arts and Bible class, the amount of work completed (by examining the exact number of words written) and overall organizational quality, with and without the use of a computer equipped with word processing software. The study was carried out in the two subjects specified and was conducted on the basis of two alternating phases. Phase A (separated further into A1 and A2) covered the period when the students worked independent of the computer and word processing tool. Phase B (separated further into B1 and B2) covered the period when the students were allowed to use a portable computer. The sequence of the program was in-class observation and evaluation of each student by the invigilator under phase A1, an intermediary training session for four 45 minute sessions on basic word processing followed, phase B1 was conducted involving in-class observation and evaluation of the impact of the use of the word processing tool on each student’s performance, in phase A2 the computer was removed and students had to resort to using paper and pencil/pen and then in the final phase B2 the computer was reintroduced. The results of this study proved that the three students improved their writing skills by 5%, reading skills by 3%, organization skills by 30% and decreased errors by 50% (Hetzroni Shrieber, 2004).   There was, however, no noticeable difference in the average number of words the students were able to produce when assisted by the word processor (Hetzroni Shrieber, 2004). While the sample used in this study was very small (only three) it is still important. It goes a far way in demonstrating that, because writing difficulties can impact performance, assistive tools catered to the needs of such students could potentially yield improvements in student’s performance. Even if this is only to a small degree, any improvement in students’ performance is welcomed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Given that students who have a Learning Disability (LD) have demonstrated significant weaknesses in their writing and reading skills, probably more so than any for any other skill, the use of technology must continue to be integrated in the classroom to assist students with LD’s. In a study presented by Zhang Brooks (1993) the benefits of one particular writing assistive technology, called ROBO-Writer is examined. The purpose of this article was to study the effects of ROBO-Writer as a writing tool for students with LD’s.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The study was conducted over a three month period in a mid-western school and consisted of thirty-three students classified as having a LD. These students included twenty-three male and ten female students ranging in age from 7.7 to 13.2 years in grades 2 to 6 (Zhang Brooks, 1993).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A week prior to the commencement of the study, students were requested to hand-write freely on any topic of interest. From the papers produced, students were matched based on their mechanics, organizational quality and length and placed into groups of three and then further dispersed randomly to form three distinct groups (Zhang Brooks, 1993). The groups were assigned to use three different writing tools over the three month period. One group (MS), used Microsoft’s Word Processing, the second group (RW), used the ROBO-Writer, and the third group (CT), used the traditional paper-and-pencil writing method (Zhang Brooks, 1993).   Assessment of the merits of one method over another would be dependent on the syntactical and linguistic quality of the texts produced by the students irrespective of the particular technology used during the study period. A one-week training in their assigned technology was provided for the students in the MS and RW groups. Three assignments were given initially. All students were required to produce essays on topics of interest, written during normal assigned class writing time lasting for approximately 20 minutes, using their assigned technology. Later the students had to compose and develop a story over the course of 2 weeks using eight twenty minute sessions. A week after completing this assignment they were given a third story to produce in only 20 minutes this time. The final writing assignment was done a month afterward. For this task students spent 30 minutes writing on a specified topic. Initial observation of the students revealed that the MS and CT made little attempt to revise or edit their work before submitting while the RW group were involved in editing their work using the tools available in the software. Assessment of the written work was done by graduate students enrolled in a holistic assessment seminar. The basis of assessment was a modified rubric because the students have learning disabilities (Zhang Brooks, 1993). The results of the study show that the method used to produce the tasks had a significant influence on the overall quality of the written products. The statistical results obtained from correlation of the scores reveal that there was a considerable disparity in the average performances on the last three tasks. Without exception the students in the RW group received considerably higher scores than those in the MS or CT groups (Zhang Brooks, 1993). The above studies testify to the benefits of using assistive technology in the form of special word processing software, as opposed to traditional paper and pen methods particularly for students with learning disabilities. The research discussed by Craddock and Eng (2003) broadens the scope by demonstrating that, while assistive technology could be useful, they must be catered to the specific need of each student if they are to be effective. In a study proposing to look at how assistive technology improved students’ grades and performance, Craddock Eng (2003) provided information on how assistive technology was effectively used in the classroom with students having disabilities. The study was done over a two year period but was not confined to the classroom. Students were also observed in their interaction outside of the classroom setting.   There were forty-five students with learning disabilities that participated in the study and more than 25 individuals engaged in evaluating the students during this period of time using different forms of evaluations including formal assessment, observations, and written reports (Craddock Eng, 2003). The students were selected on the basis of their special needs. These students were lacking in assistive technology that could prove beneficial. An initial evaluation was done to assess each student’s specific need (Craddock Eng, 2003).   After evaluation and approval, each student received a specific assistive technology. The range of assistive technology provided to the students included touch screens, alternate keyboards, Reading/Writing Programs, screen enlargements, and talking processors.   Subsequently the study focused on assessing whether or not the selected technology would effectively assist or had no effect on these students’ performance. Prior performance data was obtained for each student and this later formed the basis for comparison with performance after the introduction of the assistive technology. Later on, according to Craddock Eng (2003), data was collected periodically after students were capable of using the assisted technology. After students became relatively comfortable with using the technology, they were able to use their new tools to help them improve many skills in different areas such as reading, writing, and speaking. The students were formally assessed every six weeks. Since students were using different types of assisted technology and were in different classrooms, evaluations took different forms, for example, improvement in interaction was assessed for students with speech problems as they were now able to communicate with the teacher and other students using a talking processor instead of a writing pad. Other students who couldn’t write used a Word-Processor program that allowed them to type their answer or message. The evaluation of these students did not only focus on changes in their academic performance. Certain important achievements, not capable of being formally evaluated, such as their new ability to communicate with peers and teachers as never before, were quite evident (Craddock Eng, 2003).   The findings concluded that more than two-thirds of the assisted technologies provided allowed students to work, communicate, and interact in the classroom with students and teachers.   Students using a talking processor showed improvement particularly in oral exams (Craddock Eng, 2003). Those students using a Word-Processor program were able to communicate with others and increased speed in communication by typing their message. One of the most significant improvements for these students was speed in communication and response (Craddock Eng, 2003).   Students using these technologies improved their scores by over 30% because the appropriate technology allowed them to answer correctly and freely.   However, some of the findings concluded that some students did not improve in response time or student performance using the talking processor (Craddock Eng, 2003).   Some students were able to answer rapidly but their answers were incorrect.    This concluded that even if students had the appropriate assisted technology improvements on exams was not guaranteed.   These technologies were able to facilitate and improve interaction, communication, and response time as never before.   The study concludes that, besides improvement in their grades and performance, they were also observed to be better able to interact and communicate with others (Craddock Eng 2003). Most of the researches presented so far have focused primarily on the language arts program. This may suggest that assistive technology could only be useful in helping develop language skills. This, of course, is not a true picture. Three further articles expound on research of the use of assistive technology in other subjects areas, specifically social studies, mathematics and environmental science. In Funkhouser’s (2002/2003) presentation, he points out that Mathematics software is part of the growing demand on assistive technology. A thirty six week study at a large high school aimed to ascertain if student success in geometry could be improved with the introduction of assistive technology. The study aimed to compare effects of a constructivist approach to a behaviorist instructional approach using a mathematics software program as assisted technology (Funkhouser, 2002/2003). Forty nine tenth and eleventh grade student participated in the study including both males and females. Using a normal scheduling process students were divided into two groups. One was the control group and the other was the treatment group. The control group consisted of twenty-seven students and the treatment group contained twenty-two (Funkhouser, 2002/2003). Two different learning environments were created each using different textbooks one employing a constructivist and the other a behaviorist approach.   Both groups covered the same topics. However, only the treatment group used the Geometry Supposer software as assistive technology. The pre-test and a post-test evaluation of both groups, consisting of ten questions pertaining to math attitudes, student approaches, student procedures and geometric calculations performance showed that there was significant improvement in knowledge by the treatment group by a t-test value of 2.06 (Funkhouser, 2002/2003). The results on improving student attitude were not significant between both groups. However, according to Funkhouser (2002/2003), students received significant benefits from constructivist computer-assisted instruction. This next research, discussed by Boon, Burke, Fore Spencer (2006), involves the integration of technology in an effort to enhance learning in social studies classes. The researchers attempted to assess the impact of cognitive organizers, with the integration of technology, Inspiration 6 software, on increasing content-area learning for secondary students with and without disabilities in inclusive social studies classes. There were forty-nine tenth grade students who participated in the study that lasted three weeks. From this group, twenty students were classified as having a learning disability (Boon et al 2006).   This school was located in the southeast part of the United States.   A general education teacher and two special education teachers participated in the study.   The method consisted of comparing a pretest and posttest on the result of cognitive organizers opposed to traditional textbooks. The group of students was separated into two groups classified as a control group and an experimental group. Both groups used the same textbook. In addition to the text book the control group used were involved in group activities, used guided handouts, worksheets, and video presentations. The experimental group used desktop computers, disks, guided outlines, reading materials, and Inspiration 6 software (Boon et al. 2006). The teacher in this classroom was also provided with a folder containing presentations, templates, and lesson plans.   The teacher also participated in one forty-five minute training on how to use Inspiration software.   Students in this group were also trained on using the software and creating outlines, charts, webs, using the voice converter, and converting outlines into a cognitive organizer.   This software allowed them to insert photos, sound, graphics, highlight text, change backgrounds. In the experimental group, students were introduced to a new chapter and given a pretest consisting of thirty-five questions.   Students were provided with a cognitive organizer for writing the chapter’s attributes as a class guided activity.   When students finished the chapter, they were able to input all the information they wrote in an outline on the Inspiration software.   The software allowed students to transform it into a cognitive organizer and diagram (Boon et al. 2006).   Using this cognitive organizer, students were able to study the chapter’s concepts throughout the study.   At the end, the teacher administered the posttest with the exact questions as the pretest. In the control group, the students completed the same pretest as the experimental group.   Afterwards, the students read orally as a class discussing the chapter’s concepts and later completed a ten-question worksheet to review vocabulary, people, and important events (Boon et al. 2006).   Throughout the study, students watched videos, completed group activities, and read the chapter various times.   At the end, the teacher administered the same posttest as the experimental group.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Both tests administered consisted of grading each question using points from zero to two.   The same score procedure was used for students with learning disabilities.   Ã‚   The results indicated that prior to the technology intervention no major significance in scores was found.   After the technology interference, a major difference was found as students in the experimental groups scored a mean average of 52.54 compared to the 26.84 of the control group (Boon et al. 2006). Students in the experimental group also improved their scores between the pretest and posttest by 41 points.   Overall the students who use the cognitive organizers performed better that those who just used the traditional textbook instruction. The use of cognitive organizers therefore has the potential to notably improve content-area learning for students with and without disabilities (Boon et al 2006). In the third subject-specific research Chanda, Sharonda Briers (2003) discussed how technology programs implemented in a classroom of economically disadvantage students, including disabled, enhanced their performance on the subject of Environmental Science.   The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of classroom strategies involving computer use on the performance of economically disadvantaged students (Chanda, Sharonda, and Briers, 2003).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The setting for this study was the Pennsylvania Middle school.   There were 311 students ranging from age 11 to 14 years (Chanda et al, 2003). The study was done using a quasi-experimental design meaning it included a pre-test, intervention, and post-test (Chanda et al., 2003).   Only 249 students were eventually analyzed because the other 62 missed one part of the design.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the pre test the researchers designed a 25 multiple choice exam consisting of questions dealing with Environmental Science, computer skills, and student demographics (Chanda et al, 2003).   The post test consisted of 49 multiple choice questions dealing with the same subjects.   Students had 30 minutes to complete the items. According to the Chanda et al. (2003), students had a 1 week intervention on Environmental Science using special software that allowed them to work in groups. Students worked in groups but were still tested individually. Students working together from two separate stations could take on the role of driver or navigator. The drivers in each group could control the computer program and all actions. The navigator’s purpose was to guide the driver in everything. The navigator would tell the driver what to click, where to go, and type all answer in the program. However, both students had to jointly decide on the answers working together to complete the assignments (Chanda et al, 2003).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The post-test data concluded that students managed to improve their performance on the post-test after the evaluation due to the program based on the driver navigator method (Chanda et al, 2003). What the article fails to detail though is an explanation or depiction of the exact numbers, percentages, or data on their improvement. The students were also evaluated on the basis of gender and this produced significant results. According to the Chanda et al. (2003), when students were grouped by different gender, the males dominated the driver part and would take over the navigator part giving them less improvement on their post test. Significantly also students in the same gender had a more significant improvement on their post-tests after following their proper roles by working together to meet the objectives in the subject areas (Chanda et al, 2003). In conclusion, the special program did enhance their performance on the specific subject areas due to its driver navigator method on doing assignments and projects (Chanda et al, 2003). In their article Cramer Smith (2002) argue that the argument for the use of technology as an assistive tool is not very convincing. While they believe that the integration of technology into the classroom, not as a substitute to the traditional instructional method, but as a way of supporting the teaching learning process is useful, they do not find that there is enough evidence to support the claims that they impact student performance extensively. In an article Cramer Smith (2002) present the findings of a study assessing the effectiveness of these new forms of learning tools. The research examined whether the use of an innovative program titled â€Å"The Movie Project† designed to improve essential literacy, oral, technology and grammar skills in a fun and exciting way makes a impact on student’s productive skills. â€Å"The Movie Project† is a unit of content delivery designed by educators that seeks to have students actively involved in the productive aspects of language. At the beginning of each school year a topic is chosen for a movie and students in groups prepare a movie script, the best one voted on in class. Between January and April the entire class works on producing an eight to ten minute movie, each student vying for positions as actors, producers, camera operators etc. To complete their movie students had access to a variety of technological tools such as camcorders and computers (Cramer Smith, 2002). The research presented by Cramer Smith (2002), compares the performance of students from two schools, one actively involved in â€Å"The Movie Project† – called the Movie Project School, and the other and the other where technology was not integrated into the teaching process – called the Traditional School. The number of participants was eighty-eight and fifty five students and three and four language arts teachers respectively. Besides their use of â€Å"The Movie Project† teachers were interviewed to discuss their use and integration of technology in various aspects of the classroom. The Movie Project School was thus identified to be the most technological rich school while the Traditional School had less access to and used technology far as an assistive tool. Writing samples were collected from a randomly selected group of students from both the Movie Project and the Traditional School. Two separate sets of writing samples were collected for each student involved. One was collected at the beginning of the year and the second was collected at the end of the year. All language arts teachers at the two schools participated in the study except one in the traditional school because no beginning-of-the-year writing samples were obtained. A total of 148 writing samples were submitted by the language arts teachers, eight were used during the standardization procedure and one had to be discarded. A writing sample represents both the beginning and the end of the year work for each student. Each student’s paper was scored on the basis of the quality of the development of ideas and how well these ideas are articulated and organized (ideas, organization and voice). For each of these three areas a separate aggregated score was produced for each grade level with the scores for the beginning and the end of the year also separated. At the beginning of the school year the average scores received for students at the Movie School for ideas, organization and voice were 2.89, 2.61 and 2.81 correspondingly with a median of 3.0 across. For the Traditional School the equivalent scores were 2.46, 2.24 and 2.30. The comparative results between beginning-of-year and end-of-year samples for each student and between the Movie School and the Traditional school did not demonstrate any significant changes. The average scores for the end-of-year samples for the Movie School were 3.2 for ideas, 2.93 for organization, and 3.19 for voice. The median was again 3.0. For the Traditional School the mean scores were now 3.28, 3.08 and 2.97 and they too had a mean of 3.0 overall.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The argument put forward by Cramer Smith (2002) is clear, there is not enough empirical evidence to conclude that assistive technology dramatically increases students’ performance. They believe that the lack of success of research into the impact of assistive technology could be because it is very difficult to measure the extent to which assistive technology as isolated factors contribute to improvements in students learning. By its very name assistive technology suggests that other traditional methods are employed in the classroom as well. Cramer Smith (2002) argue that a vast number of factors can also mitigate either for or against improvement in student’s performance with the aid of assistive technology. In the research just outlined for example, it was noted that students in the Traditional School for given more writing samples to produce as well as journaling was required at least twice per week as opposed to only once per week in the Movie School. Additionally, even though in the Traditional School computers were not as prevalent, their students used technology more often than those in the Movie School.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The conclusion is that, in order to assess the overall effectiveness of assistive technologies as opposed to the traditional method, other independent variables would have to be removed as these could obscure the results in favor of one position over the other. Too many factors are at work in the classroom for this isolation to be possible. Until such a research becomes possible teachers should not, however discount the use of these technologies in the classroom. The traditional teaching methodology is ever changing and teachers are constantly pressed to develop new ideas and strategies to meet the needs of their students. Even if there is no broad consensus on the overall impact of assistive technology, the task of determining its usefulness for individual students must be left up to the teacher. It is the teacher who interacts daily with these learners. It is the teacher who can determine whether or not changes in attitude arise from exposure to assistive technologies. It is the teacher who feels rewarded when a child’s life, even if it is only one, is shown to be positively impacted when their learning disabilities are offset by the use of assistive technologies. While some of the researches presented were not specific to the learning disabled classroom, they are still of relevance. The goal should not only be to separate the learning disabled from the main stream system, but to see how best to integrate them into the regular school system. A multicultural classroom where each student is able to function effectively in the classroom, despite whatever physical, psychological or cognitive difficulties they may have, where ethnic, gender and other differences are accommodated, is the ideal. Training in the use of assistive technology cannot be only for special education teachers. All teachers, across all grade levels, must learn to incorporate these and several other technologies in the classroom so as to create the healthiest environment for student motivation and cognitive, social, psychological, physical and other forms of development.       REFERENCES    Beck, J. (2002, Nov/Dec). Emerging Literacy Through Assistive Technology. Council for Exceptional Children, 35, 44-49. Boling, C. J., Martin, M. (2002). The Effects of Computer-Assisted Instruction on First Grade Students’ Vocabulary Development. Reading Improvement, 39, 79-88. Boon, R.T., Burke, M.D., Fore, C. Spencer, V.G. (2006). The Impact of Cognitive Organizers and Technology-Based Practices to Promote Student Success in Secondary Social Studies Classrooms for Students with Learning Disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology, 21(1), 5-15. Bulek, J. Demirtas, H. (2005, January) Learning with technology: The Impact of Laptop Use on Student Achievement. The Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 3 (2). Chanda E., Sharonda P., Briers G. (2003) Evaluating Classroom Strategies to Enhance Performance: Using a Computer-Assisted Program. NACTA Journal, 12, 1-5. Craddock, G. Eng, B. (2003). Satisfaction in Assistive Technology Use: Factors that Impact on Students with Disabilities, Research Results. Cognitive Processing, 4, 28-39. Cramer, S. Smith, A. (2002). Technologys Impact on Student Writing at the Middle School Level. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 1-9 Funkhouser, C. (2002/2003). The Effects of Computer-Augmented Geometry Instruction on Student Performance and Attitudes. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 35(2) 163-75. Hetzroni, O., Shrieber, B. (2004). Word Processing as an Assistive Technology Tool for Enhancing Academic Outcomes of Students with Writing Disabilities in the General Classroom. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37(2), 143-154. Zhang, Y. Brooks, D. (1993). The Holistic Quality of Texts Created by Elementary Students with Learning Disabilities is Improved when Appropriate Computer-Based Software is Employed as the Writing Tool. Retrieved November 2, 2006, from http://dwb.unl.edu/Diss/YZhang/YZDissPaper.html

Waste Management Strategies Essay Example for Free

Waste Management Strategies Essay Waste Management is the process of disposing, managing and monitoring of our waste materials. These important steps help us to reduce or eliminate the effects it has on our health and the environment. By practicing waste management we are observing our consumption of resources and working to reduce the hazardous waste used. These practices can provide enormous change in our lives and give hope to future generations. We need to promote and implement resourceful recovery practices. These are recycling, composting, energy initiatives and recovery, waste prevention and many more. The key component is to encourage improvements in our environmental efficiencies which will eliminate waste. Managing waste is an important undertaking that will bring back the necessary balance in our environment. Most of our waste materials have actually been caused by our daily human activity. Some example would be the disposal of our waste in landfills or when we burn waste in incinerators. These options, we have found, created further environmental problems. These results would be the wind scattering the trash which then landed in our waterways and ecosystems. Even toxic liquids would leak through the landfill absorbing the additional harmful substances and polluting the environment. Ultimately, all the waste materials create serious hazardous effects on our environment which we have had to implement better ways. Well, we do have options, capabilities and yes, some limitation with the various types of wastes management available. We seriously must take better care to protect our health, lives, and the environment. Steps to promote recycling and reusing have been a popular method to manage our waste. Other disposable options have been on the rise in usage. High on the list are composting, open burning, well monitored incineration, rendering, and   other treatment and disposals methods. Reusing and recycling still remains the most popular waste management practice. It certainly helps in the protection of the environment and the added value is the saving of our resources and promoting a cleaner world. Read more: Proper Waste Management in the Philippines Prior to World War II, we lived in a world where we used and reused our materials. In the past, we placed much emphasis and value on our resources, tools and materials. It was the norm to return, reuse and recycle materials. It was the norm, necessary and only way to live. But, with the rebuilding of our world came new ideas and new ways to provide resources to our businesses, households and communities. Many found that the quicker and more convenient way to consume products, materials and substances became increasingly popular and available to all. So, the start of using cans and replacing glass bottles had been implemented because of less costs and convenience. Regrettably, along with the returnable deposits declined came the waste problems. Even though companies found the easiness of using cans helped boost their sales in the beverage industry they could not ignore the negative effects of waste. By 1960, approximately half the beers were distributed and sold in cans but soft drinks were still sold in refillable glass bottles. Gradually the shift from refillable soft drink in a bottle was the way of the past. The use of cans now caught on with the beverage industry. Sadly, this resulted in can being littered throughout the communities and lead to the serious waste problem. Yes, businesses profited from the change. The success was far too good even when the environmentalists with proposing a bottle bills law could not reverse the new trend. This law stated a mandatory refundable deposit on beer and soft drink containers to encourage returns. This bottle bill law required a minimum refundable deposit to insure more recycling or reuse of materials to protect our recourses. The system was known as the deposit refund system which remains today. The beverage industry did support this bill but wanted a guarantee of the return of their glass bottles to be washed, refilled, and resold for reproduction. This would help to reduce beverage containers being litter and ultimately conserve our precious natural resources. It would help to reduce the amount of solid  waste going into landfills and promote recycling. But, quite frankly, it really hasn’t affected overall change because many other industries have created so much waste and have not followed in the footsteps to recycle. We do have more work ahead to remodel the habits and behavior of our world. The deposit laws for container have been a tremendous success. These initiatives which New York has implemented have created a cleaner and healthier environment. The Environmental Protection Agency funding was estimated to increase to approximately just under $20 million. This will guarantee proceeds to strengthen their ability to enforce the requirements to sell only containers with deposits paid on them. The returnable container act will reduce roadside litter, recycle billions of containers at no cost to government, save over 50 billion barrels in oil, and eliminate hundreds of millions in greenhouse gases a year. By recycling our beverage cans and bottles we can save energy and protect our environment. It has been noted that recycling aluminum cans saves nearly all of the energy required to make them. Also, recycling beverage containers will greatly reduce the litter and lessens the burden on landfills. We have learned to reduce energy and raw materials consumption means the reduction in pollution. We know that pollution has been the cause of acid rain, smog, mercury-poisoning in lakes, rivers and stream, and ultimately global warming world-wide. So, to protect our environment we need to implement and encourage ways of healthy more effective, harmonious, product living styles. Some do find that those measure are unnecessary and in effective. We do know that recycling containers with a deposit amount can increase the rates from 75% to 95% but these containers only account for 5% of our waste stream. The value placed on incentives for containers encourages recycling but the deposit system cost more than the drop off curb side program. The individual finds collecting and depositing containers easier then businesses who find it problematic and burdensome on their storage and transportation expenses. Those who support the container laws find that it does reduce litter but those who disagree believe that a comprehensive litter control  program would be more efficient and effective. The opposition confirms that only 8.5% of general litter is actually beverage containers. Since the bottle bill has been an overwhelming success then to include other non-carbonated drinks would be a good idea. It certainly shows that it takes the same amount of time, money and energy to include other drinks. We have seen additional litter from these non-carbonated drink containers. We have the statistics showing the increased recycling due to the beverage container laws. Yes, the responsibility to provide these programs sits with these non-carbonated drinks. Forcing these laws would be touchy politically but encouraging them would be worth it. Even though some would agree that the price of the non-carbonated drinks would increase due to the added responsibility dealing with these recycling programs. But those who were opposed to the law would agree with alternative legislation that supports all. In Massachusetts, they are celebrating their 30th anniversary of the bottle bill. From inception, it has been estimated that 35 billion carbonated drink containers have been exchanged through the program. Even the Massachusetts Coalition gave praises on the updates and changed to the bill over the years. It is most definitely agreed that it has contributed to a healthier environment, cleaner and safer communities, and a stronger economy. These programs are an excellent example of corporate responsibility for the beverage companies. They have managed the problems of littering, environmental pollution intern paid to help clean it up. Much research is being done in developing plastic that is degradable. This exciting possibility could be the key to lowering the environmental impact. Plastic is nearly indestructible and is difficult to recycle and hard to breakdown. Bio-plastic is derived from biomass sources that are mixed with oil base materials. The Oxo-bio has great advantages as it has it can degrade completely without living residue but oxygen is required for the process to occur. This can occur on land and in the water and the oxo-bio will not harm other plastics in the recycling system. Oxo-bio does not have a future in the plastic container industry which will bring great value to the fight against environmental pollution. Certainly, addressing the solid waste, overall inclusive deposit container law, recycling and litter issues with a comprehensive approach that will emphasize solutions that are effective and efficient will be much better as a whole. Some key areas to address and promote are education and awareness, efficient and effective solutions, curbside recycling program, balance and equitable treatment in all areas for the waste producers, and finally the administration, implementation and enforcement of these waste management laws. References Australia. Queensland Government. Community Health. Waste Management Why Management Is Important. N.p., 22 Jan. 2008. Web. 19 June 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.health.qld.gov.au/ehworm/waste_management/why_management.asp Nahnson, Jerry A. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 19 June 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/553362/solid-waste-management Bottle Bill Resource Guide. Bottle Bill Resource Guide. Container Recycling Institute, n.d. Web. 19 June 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.bottlebill.org/ Daily, Steven, ed. Container Deposit Laws (Bottle Bills). Container Deposit Laws (Bottle Bills) (n.d.): n. pag. Container Deposit Laws (Bottle Bills). Web. 19 June 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.lawserver.com/law/articles/container-deposit-laws-bottle-bills History of Deposit / Return Systems or â€Å"Bottle Bills†. State Environmental Resource Center. Wisconsin Office of Defenders of Wi ldlife, n.d. Web. 19 June 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.serconline.org/bottlebill/background.html Hamou, Jamal. Definition of Waste Management. Waste Management. EcoLife A Guide to Green Living, n.d. Web. 19 June 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.ecolife.com/define/waste-management.html United States. Environmental Protection Agency. Waste Management for Homeland Security Incidents. EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, 15 Nov. 2012. Web. 19 June 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.epa.gov/osw/homeland/consid.htm Recycling and Composting. NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 June 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.dec.ny.gov/chemical/294.html Expand the Bottle Bill Neighborhood Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 June 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.longislandnn.org/stewardship/deposit.htm Bottle Bill, The Sequel. The Valley Advocate: News -. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 June 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.valleyadvocate.com/article.cfm?aid=16283 The Future of Plastics Is There a Solutin to This Huge Waste Management Problem? Globe-Net.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 June 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.globe-net.com/articles/2013/june/11/the-future-of-plastics-is-there-a-solution-to-this-huge-waste-management-problem/

Advantages of Discovery Learning

Advantages of Discovery Learning Jump to: Advantages of Discovery Learning Discovery learning was first put into writing by Jerome Bruner in the 1970s. In part II of his book titled The Quest for Clarity, Bruner discusses his views on the Act of Discovery. Bruner states his belief that to successfully educate, the educator must first assess what is already known. In this essay Bruner summarizes the basic principles of discovery learning, their benefits, its process, and a set of experiments that Bruner used which according to him, proved his theory. This essay will use research that supports Bruners theory in an attempt to prove that discovery learning is more effective than direct instruction and explain how educators should teach in result of the research. What is discovery learning? Discovery learning is an approach to learning that can be facilitated by specific teaching methods and guided learning strategies. For this essay the term discovery learning will refer to learning that takes place within in the individual, the teaching and instructional strategies designed by the teacher, and the environment created when these strategies are used. Direct or traditional instruction are strategies used in teacher led classrooms, including lectures, drill and practice, and expository learning. Bicknell, Holmes, and Hoffman (2000) describe the three main attributes of discovery learning as 1) exploring and problem solving to create, integrate, and generalize knowledge, 2) student driven, interest based activities in which student determines the sequence and frequency, and 3) activities to encourage integration of new knowledge into the learners existing knowledge base. The first attribute to discovery learning is a very important one. By exploring problems, and coming up with their own solutions, students are taking an active role in creating integrating, and generalizing knowledge. Students are not passively taking in information, as they would during a lecture, but are coming up with broad applications for skills by taking risks, solving problems, and examining unique, but useful experiences (Bicknell-Holmes Hoffman, 2000). This attribute of discovery learning dramatically changes the role of students and teachers, which some traditional teachers find hard to accept. The second attribute of discovery learning is that it encourages students to learn at their own pace (Bicknell-Holmes Hoffman, 2000). This attribute allow students learning to progress freely as the student is ready to learn new material. Students must obtain a high level of motivation and take ownership in their learning for this attribute to be met. The third major attribute of discovery learning is that it is based on the principle of using existing knowledge as a basis to build new knowledge (Bicknell-Holmes Hoffman, 2000). Students must be encouraged and provided with knowledge they already know to extend this knowledge and build new ideas. A good example of this is when students discover how to multiply a three digit number by a three digit number, by using their knowledge of multiplying a two digit number by a two digit number. The student would build on what they know about multiplication to come up with a new way of multiplying three digits by three digits. How discovery learning differs from traditional learning: The three attributes listed above combine to make discovery learning much different than traditional learning for five main reasons. First, learning is active rather than passive (Mosca and Howard, 1997). Second, learning is process oriented, rather than content oriented. Third, failure is important. Fourth, feedback is necessary (Bonwell, 1998). Last, understanding is deeper (Papert, 2000). Firstly, in discovery learning students are active in constructing their own knowledge. Learning is not defined as sitting back and taking in what is being said, but is defined as one seeking and creating their own new knowledge. Students are participating in hands-on, real life learning activities and solving real problems. The students have a purpose for finding answers and learning more (Mosca Howard, 1997). Secondly, the focus of learning is on the process and how the content is learned, rather than on the final product. Discovery learning focuses on how to analyze and interpret information in order to understand what is being learned. In traditional teaching and learning a lot of times the focus is on recalling information by rote memorization. This type of process oriented learning can be applied to many different topics instead of producing one correct answer for a specific question in a specific topic. Students will achieve a much deeper level of understanding in discovery learning. The emphasis is placed on mastery and application of overarching skills (Bonwell, 1998). Thirdly, failure in discovery learning is seen as a positive circumstance (Bonwell, 1998). Failure in discovery learning is related to a unique lesson learned from Thomas Edison. Edison is said to have tried as many as 1,200 designs for light bulbs before he found one that actually worked. When asked if he felt discouraged from all this failure, Edison responded by saying he never felt discouraged because he learned so many designs that didnt work. Discovery learning does not stress finding the correct answers each time. Cognitive psychologists have shown that failure is central to learning. In fact, if the student does not fail while learning, the student probably has not learned something new (Schank Cleary, 1994). Fourthly, an essential part of discovery learning is an opportunity for feedback in the learning process (Bonwell, 1998). Student learning is enhanced, deepened, and made more permanent by discussion of the topic with other learners (Schank and Cleary, 1994). In discovery learning, students are encouraged to discuss ideas with other students to deepen understanding. This is the opposite of the expectations in most traditional classrooms where students are expected to work in silence and find answers on their own. Lastly, after incorporating each one of the differences of discovery learning understanding becomes deeper. Learners internalize concepts when they go through a natural progression to understand them (Papert, 2000). Discovery learning is a natural part of human beings that begins from the time they are born. Humans are born with curiosities and needs which is the driving force behind why they learn. Infants learn to talk by discovery. The infant listens to others around them talk, mimics the sounds they hear, and begin to put together the pieces of language that they have discovered on their own (Percy, 1954). Discovery learning is a natural process in which students should be involved in on a day to day basis during school. Discovery learning allows for a deeper understanding by encouraging natural investigation through active, process-oriented methods of teaching (Percy, 1954). Advantages of discovery learning: What the research says Of the research that exists looking at the advantages of discovery learning over traditional learning, three main areas of focus have emerged: 1) motivation (Hardy, 1967), 2) retention (Alleman Brophy, 1992; Nelson Fayer, 1972; Peters, 1970), and 3) achievement (Hardy 1967; Mabie Baker 1966). A great advantage of the discovery learning method over traditional method is its ability to highly motivate students to learn. Discovery learning does this because it gives learners the opportunity to seek information that satisfies their natural curiosity. Discovery learning gives students an opportunity to explore their desires and therefore create a more engaging learning environment for themselves. To put it in simpler terms, discovery learning makes learning fun (Schank Cleary, 1994). In a study done by D.W. Hardy (1967), the students learning the principles of archaeology and anthropology through the discovery method of an archaeological dig were better organizers of information, more active in the task of learning, and more highly motivated that those who were taught in a traditional, lecture method. This example makes it easy to see that students would have much more fun actually digging out artifacts from thousands of years ago and making conclusions, than they would if th ey were to just read the same information from a textbook. When looking at information retention, discovery learning seems to at least match the level found when using traditional teaching methods, but could possibly increase information retention as well. Alleman and Brophy (1992) conducted a research study with college students by asking them to recall a memorable social studies activity that they did in kindergarten through the eighth grade. Many more students could easily recall activities that involved experimental learning, higher order applications, which are characteristics of discovery learning. Students also could recall more of the information that was retained from discovery learning type activities than they did from the traditional activities. Another study looked at the level of information retention in kindergarteners, but over a shorter timeframe. Peters (1970) compared kindergarten students learning mathematics using discovery learning methods and their learning using traditional methods. The results of this study found tha t students taught using a discovery learning method had equal, if not more, retention levels to those taught using a traditional method. Nelson Frayer (1970) also looked at the retention of concepts when they compared discovery learning methods to traditional methods. After studying 228 seventh graders who were learning geometry concepts, they found the same results as Peters (1970). When students are learning skills rather than facts, discovery learning has been shown to increase student achievement. Hardys (1967) archaeological study showed that students who were taught using the discovery learning method showed a positive difference in scores on both pre and post tests which measured anthropological understandings, over students taught using the traditional teaching method. Mabie Baker (1996) also conducted a study which yielded similar results. In this study, three groups of fifth grade students were taught concepts about nutrition using three different methods. One group used garden projects, one group used short, in class projects, and the other group was taught by traditional teaching methods. The group being taught using traditional methods only saw an 11% increase in pretest knowledge, compared to a 70%-80% increase in the other two groups that were being taught using discovery methods. Although discovery learning has many benefits over traditional learning, many teachers and school districts still teaching using the traditional lecture methods. Many educators believe that discovery learning cannot be used to cover the course content, discovery learning takes too much effort and time, and discovery learning will not work well with their large classes. According to the research, how should we then teach? After analyzing the research on discovery learning, five main teaching ideas emerge: 1) case based learning, 2) incidental learning, 3) learning by exploring/conversing, 4) learning by reflection, and 5) simulation-based learning (Schank Cleary, 1994). Teachers can use these ideas to incorporate discovery learning into their classroom environment on a daily basis. Case-based learning is the first teaching idea that comes forth in discovery learning. Case based learning has been around for a very long time as Harvard business school was one of the first schools to use this method (Merseth, 1991). Case based learning is just how it sounds, examining real life scenarios and cases and then applying them in new situations. Case based learning can be easily used when studying business, law, and medicine because there are numerous documented cases that deal with aspects of each of these. To use case based learning in the classroom a teacher must have cases readily available and easy for student access. Incidental learning in the second teaching idea that comes forth in discovery learning. Incidental learning takes place when students gain knowledge in passing (Schank Cleary, 1994). Many times incidental learning can take place in the form of game in which students are engaged in. This type of learning is best used when studying uninteresting topics or pure memorization because it gives students a motivation to learn these topics. Two good examples of incidental learning are having a classroom game show and creating a crossword puzzle on a topic of choice. The third teaching idea that emerges with discovery learning is learning by exploring. This type of learning is based on an organized collection of answers to questions that students can ask (Schank Cleary, 1994). This learning by exploring idea is very similar to the Socratic method of questioning. Curiosity is utilized with this method of teaching as students are given a problem to solve but they can only solve it by asking many questions. A good example of learning by exploring is a game called Whats in the bag? (Bicknell-Holmes Hoffman, 2000). To play this game, an object that is related to the topic being studied is placed in a bag. Students must then ask as many questions as it takes to try to figure out what this object is. This game helps students use prior knowledge and experiences to categorize information and discover what is in the bag. The fourth teaching idea that comes from discovery learning is learning by reflection. In this type of teaching the students learn to apply higher level cognitive skills because they must reflect on what they know to learn new information (Schank and Cleary, 1994). This type of learning by reflecting also helps students learn to ask better questions, and in turn do more sophisticated analyses (Bicknell-Holmes Hoffman, 2000). An example of a teacher using the learning by reflecting strategy will many times answer a students question with questions of their own to guide the student. This is also a model of how the student can ask better questions to themselves so that answers to unknowns can be found. The teacher does not directly answer the students question but rather guides the student with questions so they can find their own answer. This type of teaching requires lots of patience by both the teacher and the student as mistakes will be made. Students will learn to use these mistak es to help them better reflect on the topic and ask more sophisticated questions. The last teaching idea that comes from the research on discovery learning is simulation based learning. This type of learning is basically just role playing. The teacher will give the students a made up environment and situation in which the students must develop a complex set of skills or witness other students apply abstract concepts (Bicknell-Holmes Hoffman, 2000). Simulation based learning allows the environment and situation to be manipulated and adapted, with no real life consequences. This helps guide discovery as students can make mistakes and not have to worry about real consequences. Simulation based discovery also allows students to do things that would be impossible in real life, such as taking and planning field trips to other countries, or even outer space. Ever growing use of technology makes this even more possible as computers allow students and teachers to easily manipulate an environment without using much time or effort. This also makes the simulations much more realistic and authentic as pictures and videos from real places can be accessed at any time.

Politics and George Orwell Essays -- George Orwell Politics Political

Politics and George Orwell Works Cited Missing   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Books are a medium through which the author can express his views; whether they concern social injustices, current issues, or in Orwell’s case, politics. For centuries writers have weaved their opinions into their work, conveying to the reader exactly what they intended. â€Å"Orwell saw himself as a violent unmasker of published pretentiousness, hypocrisy and self-deceit, telling people what they did not want to hear†¦.† (Crick, 244). Orwell accomplishes this unmasking of these facades through his use of rhetorical strategies to relay his views to the reader. Through his books and essays, George Orwell has found a forum in which he can express his opinions, fusing his political beliefs with a satiric quality all his own.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A piece of literature that illustrates his ability to do this with unmatched skill and unrelenting satire is Animal Farm. Jeffrey Meyers said of Orwell’s novel, â€Å"In this fable about a barnyard revolt Orwell created a satire that specifically attacked the consequences of the Russian Revolution while suggesting the reasons for the failure of most revolutionary ideals† (339). In the book, the reader is given a situation in which the animals are fed up with the overindulgent, unappreciative human beings that run their farm. They decide a rebellion would cure their woes and so they revolt. However, they soon realize that the uprising was the easy part. Now they must establish a government with leaders and rules. The pigs are the self-appointed leaders because they are the smartest and cleverest of all the animals. The two pigs with the most power and persuasion are Snowball and Napoleon. The farm begins to run like a democracy, and all the animals ar e satisfied until Napoleon runs Snowball out of the farm with a pack of wild dogs. After the exile of Snowball, the animals on the farm increasingly become oppressed and Napoleon slowly starts to resemble a dictator. Throughout Animal Farm, Orwell’s main weapon of choice is his stinging satire. In fact, the entire book can be viewed as a one hundred page satiric look at politics and human life. Not only do we see humans being overthrown by pigs and chickens but all the animals can talk and some can even read and write. Naming one of the pigs Napoleon is also significant because as Meyers puts it, â€Å"The carefully chosen names are both realistic ... .... His use of satire combined with a headstrong political opinion creates for the reader thoughts and questions that were not there when one opened the pages of a book such as Animal Farm and began the journey chosen for them by Orwell. Orwell is a writer who not only gives the reader entertainment and enjoyment, but is set out to make the reader think and feel what the characters who are being victimized think and feel like. He is on a mission to make the reader ponder the injustices of society and the political regimes that run our countries, our world. George Orwell did not set out to create books that kindly represent everyone, even the tyrants. He set out to create books and literature that may have shocked some readers at first but without a doubt told the truth. Orwell once said, â€Å"Possession of the ‘truth’ is less important than emotional sincerity.† Orwell is unwavering in his commitment to make the masses aware of the injustices, victimizations, a nd corrupt politics. A writer’s only and best weapon is his words; Orwell chooses his words wisely. They can be bitter or sweet, but they always convey truths about the world ignored by many but seen and written about by Orwell.

The Working Poor Essays -- essays research papers fc

American factories can comprise of about up to 1000 workers. If American factories are shut down and moved to other countries, this takes many American people out of work. Companies are now also importing jobs. This is where employers hire people such as immigrants to work less than minimum wage. For that reason, many Americans are stuck with the other minimum wage, and low-paying jobs that barely get them through life. Because of this, many Americans are working full time jobs that are below the Federal poverty line. These types of people are often called the â€Å"working poor†. Due to this the working poor have to run to welfare. This affects all Americans because taxpayers are the ones paying for welfare. The more jobs that are taken overseas, the more poverty we will have.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is now said that the middle-class Americans are now becoming the poor in America. According to William H. Jasper of the New American magazine: To stop this job exporting for happening, American middle class workers must combine to force Congress to reverse the destructive policies that are importing foreign workers and exporting our productivity. That means abolishing the H-1B and L1 visa programs, drastically reducing all other levels of immigration, and insisting on credible INS and Border Patrol enforcement levels. It also means defeating all proposals to grant yet another amnesty to millions of illegal aliens who have come to the U.S. since the last amnesty. I...

Trouble with Women in Hills Like White Elephants :: Hills Like White Elephants Essays

Trouble with Women in Hills Like White Elephants The short story, "Hills Like White Elephants," by Ernest Hemingway, has a lot to do with how the author lived. The time period the story mostly relates to is when he was married to Hadley and having an affair with Pauline. The story shows problems within a relationship and a lack of communication between a couple. While Hemingway was writing this story, he wrote a letter to F. Scott Fitzgerald about Pauline. He wrote about sitting in the shade and talking with her while waiting at a station. In the story, "The American and the girl with him sat at a table in the shade, outside the building" (Hemingway 731). The girl comments on the hills in the background, how they like white elephants. Her boyfriend just ignores her and every time she talks about the hills, he changes the subject. According to James Mellow, "Another oddity is that in the earliest manuscript fragment relating to the story, written in 1925, is that Hemingway who remarks to Hadley, ‘look at those god-damn white mountains,’ and she answers, ‘They are the most mysterious things I have ever seen’" (348). This shows how Hemingway came up with the idea of the white elephants. Another part of the story that relates to his life is the setting. While Hemingway was in Spain, the setting of the story, he found out that Hadley was pregnant for the second time. The story might have shown his true feelings about the pregnancy. In the story, the boyfriend is moody and wants the girl to do what he wants. This could be the same way Hemingway felt towards Hadley towards the end of their marriage. Also, on the manuscript of the story, he wrote a note about Pauline. This shows that he cared about her while writing the story. Another relationship between the two is the way Hemingway dealt with women. He was married four times, and one can assume that he had his share of trouble in finding the right woman. The man in the story has trouble communicating with his girlfriend, which creates a problem in their relationship. Basically, he wants her to do what he wants and won’t have it any other way. As Mellow puts it, "It is a classic, understated Hemingway story of failure of communication between the sexes" (348). Trouble with Women in Hills Like White Elephants :: Hills Like White Elephants Essays Trouble with Women in Hills Like White Elephants The short story, "Hills Like White Elephants," by Ernest Hemingway, has a lot to do with how the author lived. The time period the story mostly relates to is when he was married to Hadley and having an affair with Pauline. The story shows problems within a relationship and a lack of communication between a couple. While Hemingway was writing this story, he wrote a letter to F. Scott Fitzgerald about Pauline. He wrote about sitting in the shade and talking with her while waiting at a station. In the story, "The American and the girl with him sat at a table in the shade, outside the building" (Hemingway 731). The girl comments on the hills in the background, how they like white elephants. Her boyfriend just ignores her and every time she talks about the hills, he changes the subject. According to James Mellow, "Another oddity is that in the earliest manuscript fragment relating to the story, written in 1925, is that Hemingway who remarks to Hadley, ‘look at those god-damn white mountains,’ and she answers, ‘They are the most mysterious things I have ever seen’" (348). This shows how Hemingway came up with the idea of the white elephants. Another part of the story that relates to his life is the setting. While Hemingway was in Spain, the setting of the story, he found out that Hadley was pregnant for the second time. The story might have shown his true feelings about the pregnancy. In the story, the boyfriend is moody and wants the girl to do what he wants. This could be the same way Hemingway felt towards Hadley towards the end of their marriage. Also, on the manuscript of the story, he wrote a note about Pauline. This shows that he cared about her while writing the story. Another relationship between the two is the way Hemingway dealt with women. He was married four times, and one can assume that he had his share of trouble in finding the right woman. The man in the story has trouble communicating with his girlfriend, which creates a problem in their relationship. Basically, he wants her to do what he wants and won’t have it any other way. As Mellow puts it, "It is a classic, understated Hemingway story of failure of communication between the sexes" (348).

The Taj Mahal

Taj Mahal – The Taj – is the â€Å"King Emperor† amongst the World Wonders. The Taj is the final achievement and acme of the Mughal Art. It represents the most refined aesthetic values. It is a fantasy-like grandeur. It is the perfect culmination and artistic interplay of the architects' skill the jewellers' inspiration. The marble in-lay walls of the Taj are amongst the most outstanding examples of decorative workmanship. The elegant symmetry of its exterior and the aerial grace of its domes and minarets impress the beholder in a manner never to be forgotten. It stands out as one of the most priceless national monuments, of surpassing beauty and worth, a glorious tribute to man's achievement in Architecture and Engineering. The Taj is threatened with deterioration and damage not only by the traditional causes of decay, but also by changing social and economic conditions which aggravate the situation with even more formidable phenomena of damage or destruction. A private sector preservation organization called â€Å"World Monuments Fund† (American Express Company) has published a list of 100 most endangered sites (1996) in the World. The environment of Agra is today beset with problems relating to the inadequacy of its urban infrastructure for transportation, water and electricity. Residential fuel combustion, diesel trains and buses, and back-up generators cause the densest pollution near the Taj Mahal. Constitution of the proposed Agra Ring Road and Bypass that would divert the estimated daily 6,50,000 tons of trans-India truck traffic financing. Strict controls on industrial pollution established in 1982 are being intensively enforced following a 1993 Supreme Court Order. The Asian Development Bank's proposed $300 million loan to the Indian Government to finance infrastructure improvements would provide the opportunity to solve the chronic problems. Agra contains three World Heritage Sites, including the Taj Mahal. † According to the petitioner, the foundries, chemical/hazardous industries and the refinery at Mathura are the major sources of damages to the Taj. The Sulphur Dioxide emitted by the Mathura Refinery and the industries when combined with Oxygen – with the aid of moisture – in the atmosphere forms sulphuric acid called â€Å"Acid rain† which has a corroding effect on the gleaming white marble. Industrial/Refinery emissions, brick-kilns, vehicular traffic and generator-sets are primarily responsible for polluting the ambient air around Taj Trapezium (TTZ). The petition states that the white marble has yellowed and blackened in places. It is inside the Taj that the decay is more apparent. Yellow pallor pervades the entire monument. In places ugly brown and black spots magnify the yellow hue. Fungal deterioration is worst in the inner chamber where the original graves of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal lie. According to the petitioner the Taj – a monument of international repute – is no its way to degradation due to atmosphere pollution and it is imperative that preventive steps are taken and soon. The petitioner has finally sought appropriate directions to the authorities concerned to take immediate steps to stop air pollution in the TTZ and save the Taj. The court considered the affidavit filed by the board and directed the board to issue a public notice. Pursuant to the courts order, the board filed affidavit (5. 8. 93), wherein it stated that public notice was published in two national newspapers calling upon the industries to file their replies during the extended time. The affidavit also states that all listed industries were polluting industries and 507 out of them had not even installed any air pollution control device. The 212industries that did not respond to the notice and failed to take any steps towards installing the pollution control devices were closed by order-dated 27. 8. 93. The court was assisted in its efforts to improve air quality in the TTZ by the reports prepared by the NEERI (National Environment Engineering Research Institute), Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) on the supply of fuel gas to industries in the area and the study conducted by the Vardharajan Committee, which was constituted in May 1994, by the MoEF. Varadharajan Committee made, among others, the following recommendations: â€Å"Steps may be taken to ensure that no new industry including small industries or other units which can cause pollution are located north-west of the Taj Mahal. Efforts may be made to relocate the existing small industries particularly the foundries, in an area southeast of Agra beyond the Taj Mahal so that emissions from these industries will not be in the direction of the monuments. Similar considerations may apply to large industries such as Fertilizer and Petrochemicals. Such industries, which are likely to cause environmental pollution, may not be located in the neighbourhood of the refinery. The Committee further recommends that no large industry in the Agra region and its neighbourhood be established without conducting appropriate detailed studies to assess the environmental effect of such industries on the monuments. Location should be so chosen as to exclude any increase in environmental pollution in the area. †¦ The Committee wishes to record its deep concern regarding the existing level of pollution in Agra. It recommends that an appropriate authority be created which could monitor emissions by industries as well as air quality at Agra on a continuous basis. This authority should be vested with powers to direct industries causing pollution to limit the level of emission and specify such measures as are necessary to reduce the emissions whenever the pollutant level at the monuments exceeds acceptable limits. The Committee particularly desires that recommendations made in regard to reduction of existing pollution levels at Agra should be covered to a time-bound programme and should be implemented with utmost speed. The Committee also recommends that studies should be undertaken by competent agencies to explore the possibility of protecting the monuments by measures such as provision of a green belt around Agra in the region between Mathura and Agra. Even though assurances have been obtained from IOC that adequate precautions would be taken to contain the pollution on account of using coal in the power plant, the Committee is of the opinion that till such time this problem is studies in depth and suitable technologies have been found to be satisfactorily in use elsewhere the use of coal in the refinery power plant should be deferred. The National Environment Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) gave an â€Å"Overview Report† regarding status of air pollution around the Taj in 1990. â€Å"The sources of pollution, including small and medium-scale industrial units, are scattered all around Taj Mahal. High air pollution load is thus pumped into the Taj air shed. Sudden rises in concentrat ion level are often recorded in all directions in gaseous as well as particulate pollutant depending upon the local micro climatic conditions. On four occasions during the five-year air quality monitoring, the 4 hrly average values of SO2 at Taj Mahal were observed to be higher than 300 ug/m3, i. e. 10 folds of the promulgated CPCB standard of 30 ug/m3 for sensitive areas. The values exceeded even the standard of 120-ug/m3 set for industrial zones. Statistical analysis of the recorded data indicate that 40% (cumulative percentage level) has crossed the standard set for sensitive receptors/zones. The SPM levels at Taj Mahal were invariably high (more than 200 ug/m3) and exceeded the national ambient air quality standard of 100 ug/m3 for SPM for sensitive locations barring a few days in monsoon months. Another study during 1985-87 brought to fore that the overall status of the ambient air quality within the trapezium has significantly deteriorated over this period. â€Å"The Taj Mahal marble samples analyzed by NEERI in 1993 reveal that the black soot on certain protected surfaces contains 0. 6% Calcium and traces of Sulphate. X-ray diffraction studies indicated that soot and quartz (Silicon Dioxide) and the major constituents of the black coating at Taj Mahal (Lal and Holden, ES & T, April 1981). The origin of soot can be traced back to the fuel consumption around the sensitive receptor, while quartz is derived from geocrustal origin and causes surface abrasion. Soot in itself is not chemically destructive, but with tar it acts as a soiling agent. Absorption of the acidic gases is enhanced due to the presence of soot/smoky matter resulting in long-term effects. Further, the presence of soot reduces the aesthetic value of the monument. Ambient air around Taj Mahal is polluted primarily from point/line sources and has adverse impacts on building material by alteration of marble and sandstone structures at microcrystalline level. The earlier studies have revealed that the concentrations of gaseous pollutants and SPM (predominantly soot and carbon particles) are relatively high during winter months due to the frequent inversion conditions restricting vertical dispersion. During monsoon seasons, suspended particles are washed away and this cycle of pollutant builds up and subsequent removal continues exposing fresh surface of the monument to the pollutant. The period industrial development of Agra-Mathura region has resulted in acidic emissions into the atmosphere at an alarming rate. This causes serious concern on the well being of Taj Mahal. †¦ The gaseous pollutants being acidic in nature, significantly both the as well as the biotic components of the ecosystem like plants and building material like marble and red stone. The sources of pollution in Agra region as per the report of the Central Pollution Control Board are iron foundries, Ferro-alloyed industries, rubber processing, lime processing, engineering, chemical industry, brick refractory and vehicles, Mathura Refinery and Ferozabad Glass Industry. On 3 August 1995, the court formed a tentative view that polluting industries in the TTZ would have to be relocated and sought the assistance of the Union Government to device an appropriate solution. Taj, being a cultural heritage is an industry by itself. More than two million tourists visit Taj every year and this is a good source of revenue for the country. The court had monitored this petition for over three years with the objective of preventing and protecting the Taj from deterioration and damage due to atmosphere and environmental pollution. It cannot be disputed that the use of coal/coke by the industries emits pollution in the ambient air. The objective behind this litigation is to stop pollution while encouraging development of the industries. The old concept that development and ecology cannot go hand in hand is no longer acceptable. The development of the industries is essential but not at the cost of the environment. Orders passed by the court time to time indicate that the relocation of the industries from TTZ is to be resorted to only if the Natural Gas, which has been brought at the doorstep of TTZ is not acceptable/ available by/to the industries as a substitute for coal/coke. The GAIL has already invited the industries in the TTZ to apply for gas connections and industries operating in TTZ with the gas connections need not relocate. The atmospheric pollution in the TTZ has to be eliminated at any cost as it's not just the preservation of monument, which is essential, but also the human life. In August 1999, the Supreme Court struck again, ordering the closure of 53 iron foundries and 107 other factories in Agra that had not cleaned up their act. The order has become a call to arms for foundry owners, workers, trade union representatives and small-scale industry. However, industry is buying time: it filed a review petition through the Uttar Pradesh State government and obtained a reprieve on the court order's implementation. The matter comes again before the Supreme Court this summer. In the meantime, Agra's Iron Founders' Association is building up their case. They argue that 3,000 cottage and engineering units depend on the foundries, and that they directly or indirectly employ about 300,000 workers. They hold that the technology for using natural gas in their industries is not yet ready. Taj trapezium project's phase II gets green signal Buoyed by a decline in the pollution levels around the Taj trapezium with the successful implementation of the first phase of the afforestation project, the state administration has okayed the Rs 15. 0-crore second phase. The success of the plantation scheme assumes significance since a report prepared by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur, had pointed out how â€Å"pollution inventory of Agra reflected high concentration of NO2, SO2 and CO2†. Apart from a vigorous re-run of the plantation campaign in the Taj city, this ph ase envisages greening of â€Å"sensitive receptors† of pollution like the heritage monuments and the 42-hectare land strip along the NH-2 (Delhi-Agra-Kanpur), NH-3 (Delhi-Agra-Mumbai) and NH-11 (Jaipur-Agra) highways. A 3